A clause is a group of words that expresses an event or situation. It usually includes a subject and a verb  A clause usually forms part of a sentence.

Example:
Tara always eats last thing at night.

Although this is a sentence in its own right (known as a "main clause"), a clause can also represent just part of a sentence.

When a clause does not convey a complete thought, it is known as a subordinate clause.

Examples:
Trying her hardest to gain weight...
After Tara has eaten her tea...

A main clause is one that could stand alone as a complete sentence.

Example:

A subordinate clause (or dependent clause) is one that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence, because it does not express a complete thought.

Examples:

A simple sentence is one which comprises only one clause.  (Be aware that the clause could be a long one.)

Examples:

Run!
He ran away.
Peter and Mark ran the whole distance in the dark.
Alice and Jenny play tennis every afternoon at the sports centre.

A compound sentence comprises at least two main clauses. The two clauses are joined together using a conjunction such as and, but, or, then, yet. 

Example:

A complex sentence comprises one main clause and at least one subordinate clause.

Example:

If the subordinate clause is used to start the sentence, a comma must be used to connect it to the main clause.

A noun phrase is a group of related words which play the role of a noun.  Like all phrases, a noun phrase does not have a subject and a verb.

Examples:

The shopkeeper will only allow 2 children in at once. (normal noun)
The grumpy shopkeeper will only allow 2 children... (noun phrase)
Give it back to the boy. (normal noun)
Give it back to the boy on the boat. (noun phrase)

Subordinating conjunctions are used to join subordinate clauses to main clauses. Common examples include: although, because, since, unless, until and while.

Examples:

An adverbial clause is a group of related words which play the role of an adverb.  Like all clauses, an adverbial clause includes a subject and a verb.

Example:

The cleaner says she left the printer cartridge here. (normal adverb)
The cleaner says she left the printer cartridge where she always leaves it. (adverbial clause)

An adverbial phrase is a group of related words which play the role of an adverb.  Like all phrases, an adverbial phrase does not include a subject and a verb. An adverbial phrase answer the questions: how, where, when or why.

Example:

Tony decided to move to Reading yesterday. (normal adverb)
Tony decided to move to Slough in June last year. (adverbial phrase)

A pronoun is a word that can be used to replace a noun. 

Examples:

Marcel is tall enough, but he is not as fast as Jodie.
(The word "he" is a pronoun.  It replaces "Marcel".)

Personal pronouns are the words I, you, he, she, it, we, they and who. 

‘You’ is the most commonly used impersonal pronoun. Indefinite pronouns refer to people or things without saying exactly who or what they are. EG. Anybody, anyone, nobody, anything, everyone, many, others.

A relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another word in the sentence.  The relative pronouns are: who, whom, that, which, where, when. (Whoever, whomever and whichever are also relative pronouns.)

Examples:

1^st person – refers to the speaker/writer – I or we

2^nd person – refers to the person/people being spoken to – you

3^rd person – refers to the person/people being spoken about – he, she, they, it

Modal verbs give more information about the function of the main verb that follows it. The function shows that we believe something is certain, probable or possible.
The modal verbs are: must    ought   can  could   may   might   will   would    shall   should

Examples:

He could swim when he was young.                         Can she really sing?

That might be a problem.                                        Could I ask a question?

A prepositional phrase is a group of words containing a preposition and its object ( a noun or pronoun)

Preposition                                                   Object

To                                                                  you

Inside                                                            his house

Under                                                            the old bridge

Examples:

Behind Mrs Grumble’s shed, lay an old, rusty spade.

Among the dark shadows, I could hear deep breathing.

An imperative sentence gives a direct command. It can end in a full stop or an exclamation mark, depending on how forceful the command is:

Examples:

Clear this desk by tomorrow! 
Please tidy your room. 

Writing can be classified as "emotive language" when there has been a deliberate choice of words to express strong emotion. Most ideas can be expressed in a manner that is positive or negative, welcoming or threatening, depending on the words selected.

Examples:

They were killed.
They were executed - murdered in cold blood. (emotive version)

A writer can force an entire image into the mind of a reader by simply choosing the right word with the perfect shade of meaning.

Examples:   He walked along the corridor.

                      He glided along the corridor.

Active Voice

Verbs are said to be in "active voice" when the subject of the sentence performs the verb in the sentence.

Example:

Active Sentences

An active sentence is the opposite of a passive sentence.  In an active sentence, the subject performs the action of the verb.

Tony is trimming the hedges all week.
("Tony" - active subject, i.e., doing the action (trimming))

Passive Voice
A verb is said to be in the "passive voice" when its subject does not perform the action of the verb.  In fact, the action is performed on the subject.

Examples:

The bridge was blown up by engineers.
             
          subject       verb (in "passive voice")

Passive Sentences

In a passive sentence, the subject does not perform the action in the sentence.  In fact, the action is performed on it.

Examples:

Anita was driven to the theatre.
(In this example, "Anita" is the subject of the sentence - subject of the verb "was".  However, she did not perform the action of the verb "to drive".  The action was done to her; she was the recipient of the action.)
Nowadays, kites are protected.
("kites" - passive subject, i.e., the action is being done to them)
The olives are stoned and crushed in this area. 
("olives" - passive subject, i.e., the actions are being done to them)

In a passive sentence, the person or thing doing the action is often preceded by the word "by".

Determiners include many of the most frequent English words, e.g, the,a,my,this.

Determiners include:

Articles  - a/an, the

Demonstratives – this/that, these/those

Possessives – my/your/his/her/its/our/their

Quantifiers – some, any, no, many, much, few ,little, both, all, either, each, every, enough

Alliteration

a phrase where adjacent or closely connected words begin with the same phoneme: one wet wellington; free phone; several silent, slithering snakes.

Antonym

a word with a meaning opposite to another: hot - cold, light - dark, light- heavy.

 A word may have more than one word as an antonym: cold - hot/

warm; big - small/tiny/little/titchy.

Synonym

words which have the same meaning as another word, or very similar: wet/damp.

Avoids overuse of any word; adds variety

Auxiliary verbs

These are verbs that are used together with other verbs. For example:

we are going               Lucy has arrived            can you play

Coherence and cohesion

An effective text needs to be coherent and cohesive.

The term coherence refers to the underlying logic and consistency of a text.

The ideas expressed should be relevant to one another so that the reader can follow the meaning.

Compound word

A word made up of two other words: football, headrest, broomstick

Conditional

A conditional sentence is one in which one thing depends upon another.

Conditional sentences often contain the conjunction if:

I’ll help you if I can.

If the weather’s bad, we might not go out.

Other conjunctions used in conditionals are unless, providing, provided and  as long as.

Direct speech and indirect speech

There are two ways of reporting what somebody says, direct speech and  indirect speech.

In direct speech, we use the speaker’s original words demarcated with inverted commas.

Helen said, “ I’m going home.”

In indirect (or reported) speech, we report what was said but do not use the

exact words of the original speaker.

Helen said (that) she was going home.

Figurative language

Use of a metaphor or simile to create a particular impression or mood. A writer may develop an idea of a character’s military approach to life by using phrases and words which are linked with the army, such as:  he was something of a loose cannon (metaphor); he rifled through the papers; his

arm shot out; he marched into the room; he paraded his knowledge.

Homograph

words which have the same spelling as another, but different meaning: the

calf was eating/my calf was aching; the North Pole/totem pole; he is a Pole.

Pronunciation may be different: a lead pencil/the dog’s lead; furniture polish/

Polish people.

Homonym

words which have the same spelling or pronunciation as another, but

different meaning or origin. May be a homograph or homophone.

Homophone

words which have the same sound as another but different meaning or

different spelling: read/reed; pair/pear; right/write/rite. A homonym.

onomatopoeia

words which echo sounds associated with their meaning: clang, hiss, crash,

cuckoo.

Imagery

use of language to create a vivid sensory image - often visual. May include:

Vocabulary choice of synonym, for example sprinted/ran/raced, selection

of adjectives and adverbs

simile he ran like the wind

metaphor his feet had wings

Personification

a form of metaphor in which language relating to human action, motivation

and emotion is used to refer to non human agents or objects or abstract

concepts: the weather is smiling on us today; Love is blind.